Torrent meal patterning

There were no differences in protein or fat intakes between more frequent snackers v. Stratified by sex There were 5-year increases in the contributions of snacks to vitamin C and fibre intakes per unit of energy among men and fibre only among women. Macronutrient intake was contributed mostly by meals and alcohol was mostly drunk at dinner. Meals v. Eating frequency and nutrient intakes Of eighteen studies that examined eating frequency including snacking frequency , fourteen found that eating frequency was associated with higher EI 40 , 41 , 45 — 47 , 52 , 57 , 67 , 72 , 77 , 78 , 80 , 82 , Meal skipping and nutrient intakes A total of six studies 23 , 64 , 66 , 68 , 69 , 71 were identified that examined the influence of breakfast skipping on nutrient intakes and only one study 71 was identified that examined the nutritional impact of omitting the lunch or dinner meal.

Meal timing and nutrient intakes Only three studies were identified that examined associations between meal timing and EI 76 , 79 , 84 or macronutrient intake Studies examining meal patterns and overall diet quality A total of fourteen studies were identified that examined associations between meal patterns and measures of overall diet quality Table 4.

Table 4 Characteristics of studies that have examined associations between meal patterns and overall diet quality. Meal timing and diet quality Studies examining associations between meal timing and diet quality are rare. Potential impact of different meal definitions on the characterisation of meal patterns and associations with nutrient intakes and diet quality Clear and objective definitions of what is a meal and what is a snack are critical for determining the energy and nutrient contributions of meals v.

Discussion Meal patterns are multidimensional and can be described according to their patterning, format and context. Recommendations to advance the field To advance the area of meal pattern research, the methods used to collect meal pattern data require further development. Conclusion Overall, there are a number of gaps and limitations in meal pattern research that need to be addressed to further our understanding of how meal definitions influence the characterisation of meal patterns, and the contribution of different meal patterns to nutrient intake and overall diet quality.

Acknowledgements R. All authors declare no conflicts of interest. References 1. Geneva: WHO. Hu FB Dietary pattern analysis: a new direction in nutritional epidemiology.

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Support Center Support Center. External link. Please review our privacy policy. Dietary recall 24 h 14 Weekly food diary 15 Meal patterns questionnaire 16 Single questionnaire items Mean time between EO Dietary recall 24 h Consistency of EO frequency and spacing 18 Usually eats breakfast, lunch and dinner each day 19 — Semi-quantitative food records 18 Single questionnaire items 19 , 20 Food records 3 d Usually omits breakfast, lunch or dinner 17 , Single questionnaire items 17 Meal patterns questionnaire 22 Dietary recall 24 h Food records 7 d 24 Prescribed diet intervention studies 26 Dietary recall 24 h 27 Single questionnaire items Classifications of combinations of foods in meals Food records 7 d Temporal distribution of consumption of food groups and intake of energy and nutrients within a meal Food records 2 d Energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate composition of a meal 25 , 26 , Prescribed diet intervention studies 26 Weekly food diary Types of food eaten in different social contexts for example, alone v.

Personal digital assistants 32 Weekly food diary Types of food consumed while watching TV v. Personal digital assistants 32 Food records and ecological momentary assessment Meal location for example, eating at home v.

Energy and macronutrient content of meals consumed at home v. Food records 2 d 30 Personal digital assistants According to time intervals during which EO occur for example, morning, mid-morning, midday, mid-afternoon, evening and late evening. Easy to apply and understand. Bias towards traditional eating patterns. Does not cater for individuals with varied meal times for example, shift workers. Participants report their own EO, usually from a list of pre-specified meal labels.

Definition not standardised. Meal labels may be influenced by the researcher's existing understanding of eating patterns and introduce researcher bias. Foods are firstly categorised into food categories based on their nutritional profile. Food category combinations determine the type of EO. The new meal pattern requirements include limiting calories and sodium, and requiring schools to offer more whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. There are many online resources where you can learn more about programs like the National School Lunch Program and the School Breakfast program, as well as meal patterns and menu planning.

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